Written by: B-321, B-747, B-566, B-500

         Communicative behavior in sexual selection is a means of propagation of alleles, which holds crucial weight in a species survival, and creation of biodiversity. Research on these concepts has been especially pertinent since the mechanisms of evolution were deduced. The purpose of our experiment, on such matters, was to empirically reveal how mallard ducks react when presented with vocalizations from drakes that are either fit, or non-fit to reproduce. To do so, our experimental team assembled a repertoire of duck vocalizations that were deemed fit or non-fit in previous research. Our team then used audio playback to present these vocalizations to mallards in the Red Cedar River. Our team compiled the subsequent data to test our hypothesis: when using playback vocalizations of fit and non-fit calls, the hens will show characteristic behaviors of sexual attraction, and drakes will show characteristic behaviors of competition during the fit calls, all while displaying no reaction to the non-fit calls. We predicted the hens' behavior of sexual attraction would included typical mating courtship displays- such as plumage flashing (Holmberg et al 1989)— all while becoming more proximal to the vocalization (Ulagaraj, Walker 1973.) For the drakes, we predict physical aggression will increase because of their need to compete for a mate (Alexander, 1987.) Distinguishing between the two classifications of audio is due to the homologous GNRH-1 gene in humans and mallards, which is why we also conducted a study to determine if humans could identify a reproductively fit male from a reproductively unfit male on a purely auditory basis.

Written by: B-321

         Just as humans play an active, key role in our ecosystems, so do the millions of animals which rely on animals of the same, and varying species, in order to survive (Vignieri et al., 2017). And one may not be surprised to know humans and animals have similarities in DNA; for some species, up to 93% similarity in our genetic makeup (Gibbons, 2012). Among the animals on our planet, humans frequently encounter the mallard duck-arguably the most abundant species of duck (Abugattas, 2016). The green head and yellow bill of the drake (male), and sporadic dark coloration of the hen (female), can be seen in the wetlands throughout North America (Bengtsson et al., 2014). Typically, mallards settle in marshes, ponds, rivers, and lakes, which satisfies their omnivorous diet; they feed off a variety of aquatic vegetation, insects, and small animals (Elkin, 1987). Mallards pick their mate in the fall, a partner they will stay with for up to six months (David, 2018). In this monogamous mating system, the decided pair is completely up to the hen (Batt, 2017). University of Stockholm's zoologist Kerstin Holmberg found male mallard qualities—body weight, sternum length, age, plumage status, and social display activity—matter to the female in the mating system (Holmberg et al., 1989). Similarly, biologist Jennifer L. Sheppard of University of Saskatchewan found female mallards increase their reproductive investment when mated to high-quality males (Sheppard et al., 2013). At Michigan State University in East Lansing, Michigan, the large population of mallard ducks on the Red Cedar River have become domesticated; they constantly interact with humans, as some of the University's thousands of students enjoy feeding the ducks on their morning walk to class (Nicolanti, 2016). This domestication seems to have no interference with the mallards' role in their natural environment, inherited instincts and behaviors, and communication between one another (Mcgowan et al., 2006).

         The conclusions Holmberg and Sheppard found bring up the ideas of sexual selection and fitness of communication, which is the conceptual basis of our research. Although our research focused on how fitness affects auditory aspects of sexual selection, rather than visual, these concepts are aligned with the pre-existing research our experiment was based on. We predicted that fitness through auditory cues would yield the same conclusion as fitness through visual cues, as shown in Holmberg's research, because fitness and sexual selection are showcased through many biological characteristics that have dictated the propagation of species since the earliest of lifeforms (Cally, 2017.) Reproductive success is largely affected by both fitness and sexual selection, which is why organisms develop many mechanisms to aid the process in which a mate is found, and how reproduction occurs (Montagutelli, 2015.) The specific mechanism our research studied was the drake's use of vocalizations to convey its fitness. Organisms display their fitness in many ways, but the main reason is to attract mates and reproduce successfully (el-Showk, 2014.) We also tested how fitness in males influences other males because it provided insight into how fitness affects aspects of competition (Campbell, 2015.) The phrase Survival of the fittest was coined by Herbert Spencer in 1864- this now famous phrase means that species adapt and change by natural selection to develop traits that are favorable in their environment and in the process of sexual selection (Claeys, 2000.) This concept can be tested on a smaller scale, which was the impetus behind our experimentation with vocalizations that showcase fitness through physical-auditory related traits such as age and mass.

         The playback method was used to retrieve the findings of duck behavior. We used auditory playbacks of mallard courtship calls that vary in ways mentioned above; characteristics of fit or non-fit ducks. Playback was also chosen due to its lack of invasiveness. It does not require a human to subject interaction, resulting in a more genuine behavior, as human interaction affects animal's behavior and socialization (Huck and Watson 2019). Additionally, it allows researchers to hold constants in the experiment which allows the trials to be more accurate (Rosenthal, 2019). Knowing vocal communications attribute to the mating process, the playbacks allowed these natural behaviors of attraction and competition to be recreated (Kross 2017). This resulted in stimuli allowing qualitative and empirical data to be collected on the different reactions to the vocalizations (Rosenthal, 2019). The vocalizations were a determining factor in how ducks distinguish between a viable or unviable mate, as well as how male ducks demonstrate their fitness to other males.

         To test for homologous mating behaviors in both ducks and humans, randomly selected females and males (separately) were asked to discern between the more fit vocalization via playbacks of two males who vary in fitness (Xu et al., 2013). The fit qualities in the human playbacks varied on the basis of suitable age and size, similar to the duck playbacks. We predicted that human females would identify human males with a lower pitch as more suitable to reproduce because Yi Xu and his research team concluded that human females preferred human males that signaled larger, and more robust body sizes— a trait typically correlated to lower pitch (Xu et al., 2013), which was advantageous in our evolutionary pathway (Feinberg et al., 2018). Our team seeked out a correlation between these physical and auditory attributes because more fit ducks develop variation in the trachea and syrinx that causes said attributes to be displayed through their courtship calls (Sheppard et al., 2013). These conclusions meant that ducks and humans needed to be tested similarly, ensuring a genetic link. The gene associated with both specimen is called GnRH-1, responsible for producing gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) (Marques et al., 2018). According to Marques's research team, GnRH produces gonadotrophs, which produces a luteinizing hormone (LH) (Marques et al., 2018). Ducks used LH for ovulation (Tanabe et al., 1980) and sexual maturation (Zoheir, Ahmed 2012), and humans also ovulated and seuxally matured with the help of LH (Aberu, Kaiser 2016). This gene successfully connected humans and ducks in terms of ovulation and sexual maturation, proving that there was a shared gene associated with the preparation process of mating.

Written by: B-747

Study site, animals, and playback set-up process

         Observations of mallards began in September of 2019 at the Red Cedar River behind Wells Hall (42.728099° N, -84.480437° W) for one hours per week for five weeks. All observations took place during daytime to coincide with the diurnal mallards (Avril et al., 2014). The type of weather and the temperature of the air were recorded each session. All response behavior, such as a responding vocalization/courtship display, or change in leisurely mallard activity, were video recorded, individually counted by the researchers, and tallied by the researchers in their respective lab notebooks (Holmberg et al., 1989). As a control experiment, the researchers studied male and female mallard activity when no vocalizations were playing and recorded the number of times a behavior was elicited; for example, shaking head or shaking tail was an elicited behavior and counted by the researchers. [Note: if an individual mallard made the same behavior multiple times in a short period of time (<10 seconds), that behavior was counted once. If this occurred on two different occasions (>10 seconds), the behavior was counted twice, and so on]. Vocalizations were played through an Ultimate Ears Megaboom speaker which played playbacks at a surround sound of 360°, at a maximum sound level of 90dBA and a frequency range of 60Hz to 20KHz. Two 50mm, 4ohm full range drivers, and two 55mm and 86mm passive radiators compiled the speaker's high-end processor (Fagioli, 2015). The speaker, developed by Logitech in 2018, was obtained from Amazon.com, Inc. The Megaboom, concealed by rocks, was placed 1 meter away from the edge of the water on the south side of the Red Cedar. Mallards were always 1-20 meters away from the speaker during playback. All behavioral analyses were recorded using an Apple iPhone 11 pro max, the most technologically advanced camera in an Apple smartphone (Marshall, 2019). The camera captured video in 4K resolution using a 12-megapixel (wide), 12-megapixel (ultra-wide), and 12-megapixel (telephoto) lens. This boosted a pixel density of 458ppi (La, 2019). The iPhone was obtained from Apple Inc.

Gathering the playback vocalizations

         In order to determine what constitutes a fit vocalization from an unfit one, our team looked at previous research on this topic. We found our four treatment vocalizations from a mallard duck call database through the Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology. This program, which has extensive research on mallard vocalizations, showcases a library of recordings and sonograms their researchers compiled over the course of their research. After we obtained these duck calls, we sorted them into categories that were deemed fit and unfit based on pre-existing categorization that the Cornell lab conducted, as well as criteria in Jennifer Sheppard's research paper Reproductive effort and success of wild female mallards: Does male quality matter? We found the aspects of fitness that influence the vocalizations are primarily age and size of the duck, which are two qualities that affect recipient (of the vocalization) duck behavior and also affect the vocalizations that the ducks make. To find homologous results in humans, we had to gather fit and unfit vocalizations as well. To do so, our team recorded male vocalizations spoken by reproductively fit men, and reproductively unfit men. The parameters that constitute fitness in the human vocalizations were the same parameters that constitute fitness in ducks - suitable/unsuitable age, and suitable/unsuitable size (correlated to depth and tone of voice). The men were chosen based on these physical attributes which are aligned with what is considered fit and unfit in previous research. The spoken sentences were recorded with an iPhone 8+ voice recorder. To eliminate confounding variables, the men spoke the same sentences, and the assignment of these vocalizations to the subjects were randomized. Compiling this information, and assortment of vocalizations was critical before we could progress with other methods.

Data Analysis of Observations

         Once observations are collected and recorded from the Red Cedar River behind Wells Hall, researchers used two different representations to show data. Researchers recorded video footage of the ducks while no sound was being played and rewatched said footage to count for categories of behavior (Holmberg et al., 1989). Categories of behavior were determined by following a similar design of Marta Manser's research team when they recorded the percentage of meerkats displaying different behaviors (Manser, 2001). The categories were determined using Sheppards and Holmberg's research team's conclusions on common female and male behaviors while attracting mates such as: being bitten or poked by a male, dipping head in water, shaking tail, etc (Sheppard et al., 2013; see also Holmberg et al., 1989). If a mallard showed a behavior multiple times in less than 10 seconds, that behavior was counted once, if a mallard showed a behavior twice in a time frame of less than 20 seconds, than that behavior was counted twice, and so on. Footage was taken of male to female courtship behavior; it can be observed when a male and female mallard interact exclusively with one and another (Holmberg et al., 1989). A quadrant system was also implemented to quantify data that is purely observational, by recording ducks for 10 seconds in Red Cedar River behind Wells Hall while one call was played (Endo et al., 2018). Averages were taken by the researchers after watching the duck footage and mapping where each quadrant is, and recording where each duck started and where they end. If only five out of the 10 ducks in the video moved to a new quadrant, that would mean 50% changed quadrants for that playback and video. This quadrant system was implemented four times, to test fit and non-fit vocalizations to males and females separately. Casual behavior was also observed and recorded, by playing calls, Mallard 1, Mallard 2, Mallard 3, Mallard 4; Mallard 1 and Mallard 2 were large, fit adult male duck vocalizations, and Mallard 3 and Mallard 4 were vocalizations of small, non-fit, juvenile ducks (Cornell's Lab of Ornithology, 2017). Each call was played for 10 seconds and then recorded for the researchers to rewatch the footage and count behaviors for each predetermined category (Holmberg et al., 1989). These categories were influenced by Manser's work with meerkats and quantifying behavior using percentages (Manser, 2001). The categories themselves were selected based on behavioral observations done by Sheppard's and Holmberg's research team's; behaviors such as: blank staring, itching behind wings, itching head etc (Hailman & Dzelzkalns, 1974).

Human Playback

         To observe possible homologous traits between ducks and humans, the researchers replicate a human based auditory experiment between considered fit and unfit vocaliztions. 15 heterosexual human female and male participants at Michigan State University per gender specific trail listened to two different audio recordings. The first audio recording was of a relatively high pitched male, smaller body size, and unfit to reproduce. The second audio recording was of a relatively low pitched male, larger body size, who was of child-bearing age. (Xu et al., 2013). The researchers visually recorded the participants to document physical responses. (Tognetti et al., 2018). The subjects we surveyed decided based on the audio selected who was considered more attractive and fit to reproduce. Then we observed the visual footage of the participants in relation to which audio was thought to be more satisfactory. The data was then quantified by the number of certain social cues taken place in the video.

Written by: B-566

         Observations of 7 male and 7 female mallards over a 1 hour time period supported mallards' wide-variety performance of courtship displays (Figure 1). No playback vocalizations were used in this study creating a positive control for the experiment. This serves as a good comparison for future study as no outside manipulations influenced natural mallard behavior. The aggressive courtship displays of flapping wings 5 times, vigurously shaking tail 7 times, biting the opposite sex 5 times, and biting another male 13 times, were most prominent. Females consistently demonstrated inciting displays as a males approached, or circled around-itching behind wings 4 times and dipping head in water 8 times-which promoted males' constant, aggressive behavior. Females did not bite any males, itch their own head, or shake their head. Males did not itch behind their wings, or dip their head in the water (Figure 1). This control further supported the prediction that domestication of the ducks has no interference with the mallards' role in their natural environment, inherited instincts and behaviors, and communication between one another. A T-test and p-value test was conducted independently via social science statistics, and the data was deemed to be not significant (t-value= 0.42581; p-value= 0.33795). Social science statistics calculated a T-test for two independent means and deemed the data not significant (t-value= 0.42581; p-value= 0.33795).

         These statistics are averages of the 4 trials our team recorded. Shown in figure 2a, where n=11±3, 59% of the male ducks dispersed to a different quadrant when a fit drake vocalization was played. After 10 seconds of playback, 10% of ducks stayed stationary, and 77% of the ducks traveled within two meters of each other to their destination. We predicted this behavior because it is not uncommon for males to tend towards the vocalization, and congregate, when competing for a mate (Ulagaraj et al., 1973.) 41% of ducks tended towards the speaker. Within these male interactions we saw nipping and lunging in 32% of cases. This was aligned with our prediction that aggression would occur in this trial based off of William C. Alexander's conclusions that ducks physically assert dominance when faced with competition for resources or mates (Alexander, 1987.) These observations differed when an unfit drake vocalization was played (Figure 2b,) where n=10±2 on average. In this case, ducks moved quadrants 34% of the time, 11% of ducks stayed stationary, and 11% traveled within two meters of each other to their destination. As predicted, the ducks didn't register the unfit call as a means of expending energy to compete (Ringelman, 2018.) When the fit drake vocalization was played to females, n=10±4 (Figure 2c.) In these trials, 57% of the females dispersed to a different quadrant, 41% of which were tending towards the speaker, 29% of the female ducks stayed stationary, and 9% of the ducks traveled to their destination within two meters of another hen. When the unfit drake vocalization was played to females, n=9±4 amongst trials, 71% of changed quadrants, 27% stayed stationary, 21% tended towards the speaker, and 13% traveled to their destination within two meters of another hen (Figure 2d). We predict these behaviors are resultant of testing during mating season (David, 2018,) courtship display tendencies (Montagutelli, 2015,) and the hen's inclination to initiate the mating (Batt, 2017.)

         During randomized observational periods, we observed both hen and drake behaviors as they pertained to aspects of sexual attraction and competition respectively. We categorized the female duck behaviors into three groups: plumage adjustment, blank staring, and swimming away. In the observational periods for females, mallard call 1 provoked 3±1 changes in location, 1±1 blank starings, and 3±1 wing itching. When mallard call 2 was played to the females 2±1 changes in location occured, 3±0.5 blank staring occured, and 4±0.5 instances of plumage adjusting occured. When the mallard call 3 was played back to the females, 1±1.5 location changes occurred, 2±1 blank staring occurred, and 5±1 plumage adjustments occurred. When the mallard 4 call was projected to females, 1±3 swimming away movements occured , 10±3.5 blank starings were recorded, and 1±3.5 plumage adjustments were noted. During the same treatments, but when observing male mallards, we recorded instances of lunging and nipping because these are common demonstrations of aggression (Alexander, 1987.) During the mallard call 1, 4±1 instances of lunging occured, and 6±1 instances of nipping occured. During mallard call 2, 7±1 lungings, and 5±1 nippings occured. When mallard call 3 was played 2±0.5 lungings and 1±0.5 nippings occurred. Finally, in mallard call 4, 1±1 lungings occurred, while 3±1 nippings occured.

         The number of responses on the graph are individual people choosing either the fit or unfit vocalization (Figure 4). Only male voice recordings were used. The un-fit vocalization came from a sexually adolescent human, who had a smaller body size, and the fit vocalization came from a sexually mature human who had a larger body size. 14 out of 15 males associated the fit vocalization with the more fit human, and 13 out of 15 females made the correct association as well. We predicted that both sexes would correctly identify which vocalization came from a fit male, because humans are innately wired to make these distinctions (Saxton et al., 2006). Only one male and two females showed preference for the unfit vocalization, which shows statistical evidence of fit vocalization identification. The data shown is significant using the p-value test (p=0.00064<0.05).

Abugattas, Alonso. Mallard Duck. Environment, 20 Jan. 2016, Mallard. National Geographic, 24 Sept. 2018, www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/birds/m/mallard/.

Barre-Sinoussi, Francoise, and Xavier Montagutelli. Animal Models Are Essential to Biological Research: Issues and Perspectives. Future Science OA, Future Science Ltd, 1 Nov. 2015, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5137861/.

Bengtsson, Daniel, et al.,. Movements, Home-Range Size and Habitat Selection of Mallards during Autumn Migration. PloS One, Public Library of Science, 27 June 2014, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4074106/.

Cally, J. G., Stuart-Fox, D., & Holman, L. (2019, May 1). Meta-analytic evidence that sexual selection improves population fitness. Retrieved from https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-019-10074-7.

Campbell, Victoria. How to Recognize Duck Courtship Displays. All About Birds, 9 July 2015, www.allaboutbirds.org/what-to-watch-for-duck-courtship-video/.

Confusing Domestic Ducks, www.birds.cornell.edu/crows/domducks.htm.

David, Diana. Mallard Duck Nesting Habits. Sciencing, 2 Mar. 2019, sciencing.com/mallard-duck-nesting-habits-8096988.html.

Earhart's Fight for Flight, msu.edu/~bowenchi/.

Elkin, Robert G. A Review of Duck Nutrition research1: World's Poultry Science Journal. Cambridge Core, Cambridge University Press on Behalf of World's Poultry Science Association, 18 Sept. 2007, www.cambridge.org/core/journals/world-s-poultry-science-journal/article/review-of-duck-nutrition-research1/62BAF8C03D30B14D4940519313D11C51.

Feinberg , David R., et al.,. Sensory Exploitation, Sexual Dimorphism, and Human Voice Pitch. ScienceDirect , Trends in Ecology and Evolution , https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169534718302271.

Gibbons Jun, Ann, et al.,. Bonobos Join Chimps As Closest Human Relatives. Science, 10 Dec. 2017, www.sciencemag.org/news/2012/06/bonobos-join-chimps-closest-human-relatives.

Hailman, Jack P., and J. Janis I. Dzelzkalns. Mallard Tail-Wagging: Punctuation for Animal Communication? The American Naturalist, vol. 108, no. 960, 1974, pp. 236-238. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2459855.

Heusmann, H. W. Mallard-Black Duck Relationships in the Northeast. Wildlife Society Bulletin (1973-2006), vol. 2, no. 4, 1974, pp. 171-177. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3781222.

Hidden Gems in East Lansing, Michigan - Inspire. Inspire | Travelocity.com, 11 Dec. 2017, www.travelocity.com/inspire/hidden-gems-east-lansing-michigan/.

Holmberg, Kerstin, et al.,. Female Mate Preferences and Male Attributes in Mallard Ducks Anas Platyrhynchos. Research Gate , July 1989, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222901468_Female_mate_preferences_and_male_attributes_in_mallard_ducks_Anas_platyrhynchos.

La, L. (2019, September 29). iPhone 11 Pro and 11 Pro Max specs vs. Galaxy S10, Note 10 and Pixel 3 XL Android phones. Retrieved from https://www.cnet.com/news/iphone-11-pro-max-specs-vs-samsung-galaxy-s10-note-10-and-pixel-3-xl-android-phones-price-camera-compare/.

Liste, Guiomar, et al. When a Duck Initiates Movement, Do Others Follow? Testing Preference in Groups. Wiley Online Library, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd (10.1111), 25 Aug. 2014, onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/eth.12294.

Lloyd, James E. Flashes, Behavior and Additional Species of Nearctic Photinus Fireflies (Coleoptera: Lampyridae). The Coleopterists Bulletin, vol. 23, no. 2, 1969, pp. 29-40. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3999611.

Luteinizing Hormone LH. Luteinizing Hormone LH | Hormone Health Network, www.hormone.org/your-health-and-hormones/glands-and-hormones-a-to-z/hormones/luteinizing-hormone.

Mallard Life History, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology. , All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology, www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Mallard/lifehistory.

Marshall, A. (2019, October 8). The best camera phones in 2019. Retrieved from https://www.creativebloq.com/features/best-camera-phone.

Marques, Pedro. Physiology of GNRH and Gonadotropin Secretion. Endotext [Internet]., U.S. National Library of Medicine, 19 June 2018, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279070/.

Muñoz-Fuentes , V, et al.,. Hybridization between White‐Headed Ducks and Introduced Ruddy Ducks in Spain. Wiley Online Library , 24 Jan. 2007.

Ringelman, Kevin M., and Christopher K. Williams. The American Black Duck: Three Decades of Science-Based Adaptive Management. Case Studies in the Environment, University of California Press Journals, 1 Jan. 2018, cse.ucpress.edu/content/early/2018/05/29/cse.2017.000844.

Rosenthal, Gil G. The Use of Playbacks in Behavioral Experiments. ScienceDirect, Academic Press, 6 Feb. 2019, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128096338207826.

SchembriDec, Frankie. Scientists Uncover Massive, Diverse Ecosystem Deep beneath the Earth's Surface. Science, 11 Dec. 2018, www.sciencemag.org/news/2018/12/scientists-uncover-massive-diverse-ecosystem-deep-beneath-earth-s-surface.

Saxton, T. K., Caryl, P. G. and Craig Roberts, S. (2006), Vocal and Facial Attractiveness Judgments of Children, Adolescents and Adults: the Ontogeny of Mate Choice. Ethology, 112: 1179-1185. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.2006.01278.x

Sheppard, Jennifer L, et al.,. Reproductive Effort and Success of Wild Female Mallards: Does Male Quality Matter? Behavioural Processes, U.S. National Library of Medicine, Nov. 2013, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23973707.

Tanabe, Y, et al. Changes in the Plasma LH, Progesterone, and Estradiol during the Ovulatory Cycle of the Duck (Anas Platyrhynchos Domestica) Exposed to Different Photoperiods. General and Comparative Endocrinology, U.S. National Library of Medicine, July 1980, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7190949.

Tognetti, Arnaud, et al.,. Are Non-Verbal Facial Cues of Altruism Cross-Culturally Readable? Personality and Individual Differences, vol. 127, 10 Feb. 2018, pp. 139-143. ScienceDirect, doi:10.1016/j.paid.2018.02.007.

Photoperiods. General and Comparative Endocrinology, Academic Press, 23 Nov. 2004, www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0016648080900829.

UE MEGABOOM is mega loud, but is it mega awesome? [Review]. (2016, November 1). Retrieved from https://betanews.com/2015/02/18/ue-megaboom-is-mega-loud-but-is-it-mega-awesome-review/.

Ulagaraj, S., and Thomas Walker. Phonotaxis of Crickets in Flight: Attraction of Male and Female Crickets to Male Calling Songs. American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1973.

Waterfowl Mating Systems II. World Leader in Wetlands & Waterfowl Conservation, www.ducks.org/conservation/waterfowl-research-science/waterfowl-mating-systems-ii.

Kross, Jennifer. Waterfowl Vocalizations. World Leader in Wetlands & Waterfowl Conservation, 17 Jan. 2017, https://www.ducks.org/conservation/waterfowl-research-science/waterfowl-vocalizations.

What about Fitness? Understanding Fitness, https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/evo_27.

What Is an Ecosystem and Types of Ecosystem? Conserve Energy Future, 25 Dec. 2016, www.conserve-energy-future.com/what-is-an-ecosystem.php.

William C. Alexander. Aggressive Behavior of Wintering Diving Ducks (Aythyini). The Wilson Bulletin, vol. 99, no. 1, 1987, pp. 38-49. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/4162339.

Xu Y, Lee A, Wu W-L, Liu X, Birkholz P (2013) Human Vocal Attractiveness as Signaled by Body Size Projection. PLoS ONE 8(4): e62397. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0062397

Zoheir, Khairy M.A., and R. G. Ahmed. Patterns of Folliculogenesis in Ducks Following the Administration of a Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone 1 (GnRH) Analogue. Journal of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, No Longer Published by Elsevier, 3 Feb. 2012, www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1687157X12000030.

Authored by: B-500

Figure 1. Mallard behavior elicited in observational control. The number of male and female mallards displaying one of nine behaviors in their natural habitat. No playback vocalizations were used in this study. No outside manipulations influenced natural mallard behavior. Male mallards are colored blue in bar graph. Female mallards are colored orange in bar graph. Researchers studied seven males and seven females over one hour and recorded observations with an Apple iPhone 11 pro max which captured video in 4K. Researchers counted during the study, and confirmed by watching the recording, the number of times the nine behaviors were elicited. Not all (males and females) elicited each behavior. If an individual mallard made the same behavior multiple times in a short period of time (<10 seconds), that behavior was counted once. If this occurred on two different occasions (>10 seconds), the behavior was counted twice, and so on. (t-value= 0.42581, p-value= 0.33795).

Figure 2 Visual tendencies of mallard duck dispersion and proximity. Q1-4 represent the possible quadrant locations that the ducks move within. The circle represents the initial location of the duck, and the arrow represents the general direction the duck moved after 10 seconds of the playback call. A, n=11±3, after playing vocalizations that were deemed fit, the experimenters recorded the dispersion patterns of male ducks. B, n=10±2, this figure represents the same experiment, but with unfit vocalizations to male ducks. C, n=10±4, this figure represents the same experiment, but with fit vocalizations to female ducks. D, n=9±4, this figure represents the same experiment, but with unfit vocalizations to female ducks. These figures represent the trial that was most aligned with our averages. The nuances of the mallard's movement were analyzed and interpreted for patterns that are aligned with previous experimentation that shows how proximity and dispersion are related to sexual selection (Alexander, 1978,) and reproductive tendencies (Ulagaraj et al., 1973). The looped video is a visual indication of ducks demonstrating quadrant crossing and intersex interactions.

Figure 3. Mallard hen and drake behavior during playback and observational control. Researchers studied 10±2 hens and 10±2 drakes 1 hour per week, for 4 weeks. Playback vocalizations compiled from Cornell Lab of Ornithology were played through an Ultimate Ears Megaboom speaker casting 4 different playback vocalizations. Researchers video-recorded all observations on an Apple iPhone 11 pro max and counted all resulting behaviors. Yellow=Mallard 1, grey= Mallard 2, orange=Mallard 3, dark blue= Mallard 4, light blue = control (no sound); Mallard 1 and 2=vocalizations of large, fit adult male mallard (mallard fit to reproduce), Mallard 3 and 4=vocalizations of small, non-fit and juvenile ducks (mallard not fit to reproduce). A: Female mallard behavior resulting from vocalizations. 3 resulting behaviors are illustrated from n = 10±2 hens. B: Male mallard behavior resulting from vocalizations. 2 resulting behaviors are illustrated from n = 10±2 drakes. 3A: p -value = 0.05031. 3B: p-value = 0.5668.

Figure 4. Results of blind homologous behavior experiment. Males (n=15) and females (n=15) were randomly selected from Shaw Hall Dining Hall, The Minskoff Pavilion, CATA Bus Station, and Snyder-Phillips' Dining Hall, and asked to identify between one fit and one non-fit vocalization (of human males) based on what they believed came from a human that was fit to reproduce, and one who was not. Participants were given overhead beats headphones and each vocalization played individually. Participants then indicated, by signalling with their fingers, whether the first or the second vocalization came from the more sexually fit male (who would ensure greater odds of reproductive success). Results were recorded, and tested for statistical significance, yielding that. *p=0.00064<0.05. The looped video visually represents the methodology used in the homologous human behavior experiments.

Figure 5. Experimentation with Mallards and Humans on Fitness in Vocalizations. This is a five minute documentary with the purpose of explaining the research project conducted. Outlines introduction, observations, methods, results, conclusions, and many more important aspects of the research project on mallard duck fit vs nonfit vocalizations.malla